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c The hypothetical bias is the difference between the hypothetical WTP and the real WTP.
A positive difference between the hypothetical and actual number of RV cases implied a decrease in incidence for the VS and confirmed immunization resulting from herd protection.
Under the scenario where u b = 0, i.e. no treatment during baseline, the number of deaths prevented or postponed can be estimated by the difference between the hypothetical number of deaths under the absence of treatment (during a specific time period S following the disease diagnosis) and the number of deaths if the treatment was present with target uptake u t.
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The difference between this hypothetical line and the actual line produced of people's incomes is the Gini ratio.
These past incidence rates are calculated back to current prevalence rates in a hypothetical population without overweight, and then the PAP is found from the difference between these hypothetical prevalence rates and the observed prevalence rates.
The difference between this hypothetical situation and the actual one is of scale, not principle.
Therefore, research to test for a possible difference between the influence of hypothetical costs and financial rewards on the hypothetical willingness and the participation rates of such lifestyle intervention programmes in real life, is needed.
Calculation of RV incidence (BS) × unprotected people (VS actual RV cases (VS) as difference between the previously calculated hypothetical cases and the actual cases taken from the VS.
In each of the three patients in whom both microdischarges and HFOs were present, there was a significant difference between the actual and hypothetical measures (Wilcoxon signed rank test, P < 0.05), with the mean of the distances of actual HFOs to microdischarge sites being smaller than that calculated for the hypothetical uniform distribution (Table 3).
With no differences between the two hypothetical groups other than the length of the sentence, even 3 extra months in prison led to higher incarceration rates over time.
She noted an attempt to explain the difference between flipping hypothetical coins, one of which comes up heads 50percentt of the time, and the second of which comes up heads 60percentt of the time.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com