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The difference between neighbouring values g p and the centre pixel value g c are encoded with three values using a threshold value t: begin{array}rcl@ s_{3}(g_{p},;g_{c},;t)= left{ begin{array}{rl} 1, &; g_{p} geq g_{c} + t 0, &; g_{c} - t leq g_{p} < g_{c} + t -1, &; text{otherwise} end{array} right.. end{array} (5).
The main advantage this has over other possible penalties is that it is a function of the difference between neighbouring voxels as well as a function of their sum [ 19].
To distinguish between these two types of distribution, a raggedness index (RI, sum of the squared difference between neighbouring peaks) and the sum of squared deviations (SSD) between the observed and expected mismatch were calculated using the methods of Schneider & Excoffier [ 57] in ARLEQUIN.
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Finally, an analysis of differences between neighbouring sites revealed that all pairs of neighbours (regardless of colour morph) differed significantly in infection parameters for at least one group of parasites.
Differences between neighbouring local dialects are usually small, but, in traveling farther in the same direction, differences accumulate.
The results show that the heterogeneity map had moderate correlation (R2 = 0.60 and 0.63 in two transects) with the sum of differences between neighbouring transect pixels in all land cover components.
In these cases, intrapopulation chromosomal polymorphism is absent and differences between neighbouring chromosomal races, although minor, are fixed.
However, this variation was generally smaller than the variation observed between sites (Table 3; Figure 2), and differences between neighbouring sites were often stable over time.
Sub-Saharan Africa consistently shows as the area of greatest disadvantage, and, although this is perhaps not surprising, it conveys a somewhat stronger message than national approaches, which tend to emphasise differences between neighbouring countries and sometimes imply an unhelpful sense of blame towards particular nations.
Extending some ideas already used for the gas dynamics system, the proposed scheme is based on a centred formulation for the pressure gradient term in the momentum equation and on the introduction of a stabilising term proportional to the pressure difference between two neighbouring cells.
On the other hand, the RMA method is based on the notion that a disparity value that is closer to the ground truth can be found by taking into account the absolute differences between the neighbouring pixels as well.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com