Possible roles of these genes in pathological mechanisms resulting in development of hallmarks of AD are described.
Recent evidence indicates that oxidative stress occurs early in the progression of Alzheimer disease, significantly before the development of the hallmark pathologies, namely neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques.
NR delayed the development of morphological hallmarks and ultrastructural changes in mitochondria and resulted in a remarkable induction of mitochondrial biogenesis and oxidative metabolism, with an increase in mitochondrial mass, mtDNA, and respiratory chain protein amounts in the muscle.
Accumulating evidence indicates that CENP-A and other centromere proteins are frequently upregulated in cancers and their overexpression is associated with the development of aneuploidy, a hallmark of malignant cells [16], [19] [23].
MCP-1, which is also overexpressed in AT during obesity, acts as a chemoattractant for macrophages and other immune cells that infiltrate AT, leading to the development of inflammation, another hallmark of obesity and IR.
The progress in uncovering hidden heterogeneity in AD would be substantially facilitated if common mechanisms involved in development of AD, its hallmarks, and AD related chronic conditions were investigated in their mutual connection.
The molecular mechanism(s) by which mechanical ventilation disrupts alveolar development, a hallmark of bronchopulmonary dysplasia, is unknown.
Fat accumulation in the liver, an organ central to the body's metabolism, can have detrimental effects throughout the body, including increased cardiovascular disease risk and the development of insulin resistance, the hallmark of pre-diabetes and type 2 diabetes.
Pheromones have also been implicated in promoting male acceleration of female puberty, the Vandenbergh effect [9], which is characterized by the development of reproductive organs, a hallmark of which is uterine growth, and an increase in hormone signaling [5].
Damage to the airway epithelium, in turn, is thought to be a major factor responsible for the development of airway hyperreactivity, a hallmark of asthma.
One of the major effects of these interventions and treatments is the management or improvement of insulin resistance (IR) (Nelson et al. 2013), a core pathophysiological process in the development of diabetes and a hallmark of most modern, metabolic diseases (e.g., metabolic syndrome, obesity, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease) (Samuel and Shulman 2012).
