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As a result, considerable emphasis has been placed on tactics other than chemical controls, including cultural, biological, and genetic methods and the deployment of crop varieties that are resistant to pests.
Does this suggest that regulatory mechanisms based on evolutionary principles will emerge for the deployment of crop resistance to fungal pathogens, for example, with the goal of slowing rates of evolution of pathogen infectivity?
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Boom-and-bust: Cycles of rapid increasing deployment of specific crop varieties (protected by specific major resistance genes) followed by their 'collapse' as evolution in the pathogen population for matching infectivity leads to an effective loss of resistance and an upsurge in disease epidemics.
The scientists concluded: "Broadly speaking, the deployment of Bt crops may favour biocontrol services and enhance economic benefits not only in Bt crop fields but also in the whole agricultural landscape".
The deployment of GM crops has increased 94-fold.
"Forewarned by the long history of insecticide resistance, the deployment of transgenic crops for insect control has incorporated resistance management plans from the beginning," he writes.
Integrating the deployment of biofuel crops in ways in which minimise disruption of existing food and fibre systems will be a real challenge.
Beneficial insects, host plant resistance and so-called 'soft' pesticides, which are selective for key pests and have little impact on beneficial species, are all valuable components of IPM which should be considered in the deployment of biofuel crops.
The deployment of transgenic crops that are male sterile provides greater assurance that the transgenic genotype will remain confined to the area in which it is planted, without concern for transport of pollen to neighboring fields.
The deployment of Bt crops has decreased the regional density of several pests of corn and cotton.
A thorough understanding of quantitative disease resistance (QDR) would contribute to the design and deployment of durably resistant crop cultivars.
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