ε i j t stands for time varying composite error that consists of α i + u i j t, where α i denotes country-specific unobserved factors that affect the flows between i and j, and u i j t represents white noise error.
High TI means that numerous alerts are issued against that country by others, while high DI denotes countries that issued many food alerts against food products from other countries.
Namely, {MedC}_{ab}={sum}_{i=1}^nIleft( Langu_{media}_{a,i}={Langu}_bright), (3)where a, b denote country where the shock originated and country affected by contagion, respectively.
ε i,t is an independently distributed error term with E[ε i,t ] = 0, and the subscripts I and t denote country and time period, respectively.
where i, t denote country and year respectively, u i,t is cyclical unemployment, FC i,t is a consolidation variable, θ t and η t are, respectively, country and year fixed effects, while ϵ i,t is a standard white-noise error.
Subscript i and t denote country and year respectively, Y it are the migration variables of interest (i.e. skilled migration m i,t h, unskilled migration m i,t l, total migration m i,t k, and selection rate s i,t ), Aid it is the ratio of international aid on Gross Domestic Product (GDP), X it is a matrix of control variables and δ i and τ t are the individual and time fixed effects respectively.
where j indexes countries, R j denotes the country of origin-specific return to schooling, as a measure of schooling quality, P j denotes a set of parental factors, I j denotes a vector of educational resources and ϵ j captures country-specific unmeasured factors affecting schooling quality.
An annual corruption-perceptions index compiled by Transparency International puts Vietnam in 107th place, tied with Zimbabwe, Belarus and Zambia at a score of 2.6 (a "10″ denotes a country free of corruption).
where, i denotes the country and t the time index, α is a constant, Z it is either WPR or TSL, and X it is a vector of demographic variables as well as the state of the business cycle.
where i denotes the country and t the time index, Z it is either WPR or TSL, α0 is a constant, DUM′ = [DUMMY_GR, DUMMY_SP] is a pair of dummy variables equal to one for Greece and the SP countries (Spain and Portugal), respectively, α1 is a vector of coefficients, and u it is the error term.
