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In Digital Media, Skullphone examines the contradictions inher- ent in outdoor digital signage, demonstrating cause for both wonder and concern over the increasingly ubiquitous medium.
Although a prospective, controlled randomized clinical trial is, of course, the optimal means of demonstrating cause and effect, epidemiological studies with adequate multivariable analysis can provide valuable information.
Functional studies directly demonstrating cause and effect, or providing any proposed cellular or molecular mechanisms to explain the association, are needed to extend and validate these findings.
11 More recently, one study found that physical therapy trials published in high impact journals were more likely to be registered than those published in other journals (75% v 34%) again suggesting an association between journal policies and registration, although not necessarily demonstrating cause and effect.
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In searching for the causes of other cancers, he argues, epidemiological data have led researchers astray, and by their nature they cannot demonstrate cause and effect.
While it said it could not demonstrate cause and effect, it noted that in 21 of the areas, there were "elevated rates" of infant mortality.
For instance, studies showing that delinquents play more violent video games than non-delinquents don't in anyway demonstrate cause.
Whilst the case report is a popular first step, it cannot demonstrate cause and effect.
Nobel Prize-winning economist James Heckman of the University of Chicago says the study fails to demonstrate cause and effect and calls it "potentially very misleading".
Another is that the most widely available methods -- functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and event-related potentials (a variation of electroencephalography) -- reveal only how brain activity and behavior are correlated; their ability to demonstrate cause and effect is limited.
This study does not attempt to demonstrate cause and effect.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com