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It's tricky to define cause and effect.
Mechanistic research is therefore essential to define cause and effect.
A straightforward explanation of the use of counterfactuals to define cause can be found in [ 2].
Although recent advances in high throughput sequencing technology make it feasible to study very complex microbiotas in detail, to precisely define cause or consequence of an observed effect remains challenging.
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It's often harder to define causes and outcomes of mental health problems and to show the public what research can do – this adds to the challenge of obtaining charitable funding.
Some headache epidemiological studies have more analytical aims: to define causes of or risk factors for headache.
The diagnosis of acute compartment syndrome (ACS) remains difficult and stress inducing despite continued efforts to define causes and risk factors of this condition.
A few studies had more analytical aims, explicitly attempting to define causes of or risk factors for headache, and adopted appropriate case-control or cohort designs.
14 These define causes of death by ICD-10 codes with the main underlying cause established for each death using standardised rules.
There is no clearly defined cause of this conflict.
In Mr. McCahey's case, however, there is no defined cause.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com