Plants have evolved a complicated resistance system and exhibit a variety of defense patterns in response to different attackers.
Consequently, plant defense patterns to different attackers are shaped not only by interactions between different plant hormone signal pathways, but also different combinations of defense signal pathways, secondary metabolite metabolism, and important physiological responses.
The leafminer is thus a special insect with a damage pattern in plants somewhat similar to pathogens, and is a good model to test relationships between insect damage patterns and plant defense patterns.
It has recently been shown, however, that these signals are correlated in a very complex fashion; sometimes they conflict, while at other times they cooperate [ 4, 5], indicating that plants express various defense patterns when damaged by different attackers.
In a first layer of defense, transmembrane pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), usually with extracellular LRR-type domains, recognize pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and initiate downstream signaling events including defense gene induction [ 2], and lead also to cell wall reinforcement by callose deposition and SNARE-mediated secretion of anti-microbial compounds [ 3, 4].
ROS also plays a role in the activation of the inflammasome, an important arm of the innate immune defense, whereby pattern-recognition receptors on host cells identify danger to the host, via recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns from microbes and damage-associated molecular patterns released from injured tissue (Bauernfeind and Hornung 2013).
(p 278) Flight-or-fight responses are active defense responses coordinated patterns of emotional-behavioral-physiological response that are activated when animals are confronted with imminent danger, such as being actively pursued or attacked by a predator.
Innate immunity is an ancient system of cellular defense based on pattern recognition receptors that bind pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which are found in prokaryotes but not eukaryotes (5 – 7).
Our work provides an insight into the optimal defense resource allocation pattern in scale-free networks and is helpful for designing a more robust network.
Burdine maintains that a sole defense counsel's pattern of repeatedly sleeping for a significant amount of time during both phases of a capital murder trial unquestionably amounts to the denial of assistance of counsel during such a stage of trial...
