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Complex IV activity was measured at 25 °C by monitoring the absorbance decrease of reduced cytochrome c at 550 nm.
For the latter, a rapid decrease of reduced GSH was observed, which preceded an irreversible commitment to cell death.
This redox imbalance can be determined by several factors, including an overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Petherans et al., 1987; Elbim et al., 2001; Machida et al., 2006; Imai et al., 2008; Hu et al., 2011) and/or a decrease of reduced glutathione (GSH), the main intracellular non-enzymatic antioxidant (Cai et al., 2003; Nencioni et al., 2003).
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Taken together, these results well describe the induction trend of NO3- assimilation pathway, as suggested by the increase of NR activity and amino acids accompanied by the consequent decrease of reducing sugars, the main source of carbon skeletons [ 41].
This result was indicated by a significant (P < 0.01) increase in the maleic dialdehyde level and decreased levels of reduced glutathione, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase.
Also, increased levels of lipid peroxdation, activity of caspase-3 and decreased levels of reduced glutathione, activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase and activity of cytochrome c oxidase following arsenic exposure were protected in mice co-treated with arsenic and amla.
31– 33 These findings help explain why a decreased amount of reduced GSH in blood has been shown to be an independent marker of progression of atherosclerosis in 2 studies.
Increased production of ROS associated with enhanced lipid peroxidation and decreased levels of reduced glutathione, the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase as observed in the present study consistent with the earlier findings [ 20, 21].
Enhanced lipid peroxidation and decreased levels of reduced glutathione, activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase following exposure to arsenic has been found to be protected following simultaneous treatment with arsenic and amla in mice suggesting protective efficacy of amla.
An in vivo study of isolated rat hepatocytes showed that VPA induces significant increase in mitochondrial ROS production, disruption in electron transfer chain, and increase in lipid peroxidation, together with decreased levels of reduced glutathione.
Diabetes leads to decrease in levels of reduced glutathione [ 15, 36].
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