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This not only indicates the loss of customary resource management practices, but a failure of formal resource management institutions to substitute for those practices and secure long-term access to essential assets such as land and natural resources for less well-off farmers.
While local and customary resource management offered some protection to women, modern statutory tenure systems risk the loss of women's control over resources as pointed out by Ann Waters-Bayer from the core team of the Coalition of European Lobbies for Eastern African Pastoralism (CELEP).
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In: SPREP, Report on the workshop on customary tenure, traditional resource management and nature conservation, Noumea, 28 March - 1 April.
The policy recommendations include the need to 'recognise and respect customary institutions for natural resource management' and to 'foster alliances between local, traditional institutions governing natural resources and the governmental agencies in charge of conservation' (Simoncini et al. 2008).
This law is not respected anymore and the role of customary institutions in natural resource management is increasingly undermined, driven by the desire to diversify livelihoods and income sources in selling wood and charcoal (Datona 2014).
Local institutions at the regional and Woreda levels should be linked to customary institutional structures of natural resource management, e.g. through the establishment of joint boards or management committees.
Community mapping has been empowering for indigenous communities who have mastered technology to record the customary land use and knowledge of natural resource management.
In contexts where there are low levels of formal education and high levels of illiteracy, and where marine resource management is governed predominantly by customary management systems, the introduction of formal marine resource management can be challenging.
Indigenous communities have also undertaken innovative initiatives for sustainable development by producing their own maps detailing customary land use, occupancy and knowledge of natural resource management.
These customary institutions are still important in contemporary natural resource management and have contributed to the successful management of ngitili, and particularly in adapting to the increase in herd size, which has grown above subsistence level.
In many parts of the Coral Triangle, governance is further complicated by overlap of authority between formal and customary government systems: whilst customary tenure is recognised in national constitutions, traditional systems of natural resource management tend to be poorly integrated with national policies and legislation.
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