Achievement was measured by course achievement tests.
While Paechter et al. [27] study indicated that no difference was found among ages on online learning course achievement.
Fincher et al. (2005) found a significant yet low level of relationship between spatial skill and 'Introduction to Programming' course achievement.
The findings imply the importance of monitoring changes in students' implicit beliefs and gateway course achievement in order to better understand and promote STEM retention.
There were only minor differences between test and control groups in terms of proficiency test scores and participation levels, suggesting that including participation as a measure of course achievement has little impact on performance.
While traditional conceptions of spatial ability are clearly related to STEM career choice and course achievement, measures of spatial ability may simply not capture the more complex forms of spatial thinking that characterize STEM curricula and the disciplines more broadly (National Research Council, 2006).
For language use activities involving reading in English, for instance, the identified subthemes included input for reading assignments (content/amount of reading and availability/quality of the text), expected output of reading assignments, the effects of disciplinary knowledge on reading comprehension, the effects of language of reading on course achievement, and instructor support.
Finally, the participants were generally favorable about the introduction of four-skill assessments into university entrance examinations due to advantages of high English language ability on course achievement and conducting research in a long run, although the importance of reading was emphasized.
However, other studies found that the Value subscale was not related with course achievement [ 13, 22].
There were significant positive correlations between course achievement and attitudes toward statistics.
