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The bag-of-words (BoW) model is originally used in document classification, where each document is considered as a bag of words and is represented as a vector of occurrence counts of words (a histogram over the vocabulary).
We used the Google Ngram Viewer, an online graphing tool which charts annual counts of words or sentences as found in the largest available corpus of digitalized books, to analyse word frequency time-series plots of key concepts of social differentiation in the English as well as in the Spanish, French, German, Russian, and Italian sub-corpora between 1800 and 2000.
For gene expression, we change the counts of words to counts of differentially expressed genes in gene sets, one word type corresponding to one gene set.
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Then, the proposed method to estimate PFMs is e1 where φ pi is the estimate of PFM element, and T pi and C pi are the counts of word W pi, in the test and control sequences, respectively.
The number ratio feature is calculated by dividing the total count of numbers by the total count of words the subject used in the conversation.
As the volume of tweets has been considered as not uniform the refresh rate compensates for non uniformity of the count of words.
χ2-statistics were calculated according to the following formula [17]:
For example, for long tandem repeats of the microsatellite CAA, only the first occurrence of overlapping 8-mers (i.e. CAACAACA, AACAACAA, and ACAACAAC) is counted towards the total count of words.
The similarity calculation methods shall be classified into two main categories: methods based on the counting of words and methods that do not involve such a counting.
Among the methods based on the counting of words there is the k-mers counting method, which was proposed by Katoh et al. [ 6].
Here |p| u is the number of unique terms in document d, and |p| is the total count of words in the documents.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com