We start by briefly discussing the theoretical background of counterfactuals.
Mackie's notions of causal fields and the inus condition are essential in providing a deeper background for a counterfactual theory of causation.
1 Those RR functions in table 3 compare current measured pollutant concentrations with a counterfactual level (a hypothetical 'natural' background or a 'target' concentration).
Counterfactual thoughts tend to focus on background conditions, that is, enabling causes, rather than on direct, strong causes (Byrne, 2005).
1 22 Four counterfactual concentrations were used for O3: 70 µg/m: background level scenario from the WHO AQG.
19 Four counterfactual concentrations were used for PM2.5: 3 µg/m: background level scenario.
The counterfactual concentrations used for PM10 were: 10 µg/m: background level scenario.
Simultaneously, Chinese speakers admit the existence of real situation and describe it in the antecedent as a premise or background to create a contradiction in a counterfactual conditional with yàobúshì.
For example, the counterfactual exposure for outdoor air pollution was the natural background level of particulate matter, and zero for second-hand smoke.
The only difference between the two calculations is the counterfactual level used in (1) it is the 'natural' background level (ie, the level that would exist without any man-made pollution) and (2) it is a 'target' concentration. 1 Different counterfactual concentrations were selected to reflect different exposure scenarios, as described following.
This paper will discuss the philosophical background to evolutionary theory and present multiple counterfactuals to each of the following seven empirically unsustainable but nonetheless widespread assumptions about genomic (DNA-based) evolution:.
