And the Trumpian content can at times be contradictory or even counterfactual, as in false.
This is more conservative than assuming a stable condom use counterfactual as typically done.
We accounted for temporal trends in STIs during the study period by adjusting for STIs within a comparison group of 12 states compiled to best represent the counterfactual, as there is no ideal (i.e. randomized) control group.
Special versions of Bayesian networks, as it turned out, can manage causal and counterfactual relationships as well.
The reference level provides a counterfactual business-as-usual scenario of what future net emissions would be, against which the actual future net emissions can be compared [7, 12, 17].
Indeed, ever since David Hume, philosophers have treated counterfactuals as a key element of the very concept of causality: "A causes C" means that without A, C would not be true.
Many philosophers think of concepts like "explanation", "law", "cause", and "support for counterfactuals" as part of an interrelated family or circle of concepts that are "modal" in character.
As an illustration of this attitude, consider Hempel's discussion of "support for counterfactuals" as a criterion for distinguishing laws from accidental generalizations in his (1965).
Perhaps the constructive empiricist can view the relevant counterfactuals as reducible to non-modal conditionals, in the spirit of the context-dependent reduction of counterfactuals to non-modal conditionals entertained in section 3.5 above.
Specifically, 126 undergraduate students at a small midwestern university were asked to read, one at a time, 4 scenarios (two with positive and two with negative outcomes) and generate as many alternative-action outcome sequences (i.e., counterfactuals) as they could in 5 min.
For example, what it is for a perfectly symmetrical sphere to be rotating might consist, in part, in the truth of such counterfactuals as "were a dot painted on the sphere at time t, the location of the dot at time t′ would be different in such-and-such a way".
