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The remaining three studies demonstrated large magnitudes of effects, narrow confidence intervals and strong control for plausible confounders [ 33, 34, 39].
Whereas these have the advantage of avoiding recall bias and yielding high statistical power, they may exaggerate the significance of variables such as maternal demographics, on which data are readily available, whilst failing to control for plausible confounders, such as breastfeeding or family structure, on which data (from large datasets) tends to be poor or absent.
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After adjusting for plausible confounders, Internal Medicine residents with fellowship interest had statistically significantly higher overall percentile scores.
This investigation followed approximately 500,000 individuals across a 16-year period, evaluating mortality risk from air pollution while controlling for numerous plausible confounders (including smoking, alcohol consumption, body mass index, diet, and occupational exposures).
Furthermore, we were able to control for a number of plausible confounders and factors that may mask the etiological pathway of the association between flavonoid and lignan intake and type 2 diabetes.
To reduce the risk of confounding factors we adjusted statistically for all plausible confounders.
We also included both Mediterranean and non-Mediterranean countries and were able to control for a large number of plausible confounders, effect modifiers, and factors that may lie in the etiological pathway of the association between MDP and type 2 diabetes.
Socioeconomic factors and other plausible confounders were controlled for.
Randomized controlled trials (that carefully control for potential confounders such as diet, physical activity, and body composition) are required to adequately investigate the effects of supplementation with long-chain n-3 PUFA on insulin sensitivity and metabolism.
Third, most previous research failed to control for factors – including social or family characteristics – that are plausible confounders of the relationship between positive attributes and psychiatric outcomes.
Observational studies should adequately control for relevant confounders (eg, baseline comorbidities) and assess effect modification in the analysis.
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