However, we believe that this effort is necessary for unraveling potential causes underlying confounding traits of HIV-1 infection.
In termites, neotenic replacement reproductives are especially suited for this purpose because they differ from workers only by traits linked to reproduction, while confounding traits that are developed by winged sexuals for the dispersal process (e.g. compound eyes, wings) are not expressed.
SNPs deviating from HWE may confound trait-allele association as they are thought to reflect genotyping error (Clayton et al. 2005; Salanti et al. 2005), although the contrary has also been argued (Cox & Kraft 2006).
We used GCTA version 0.93.9 (Yang et al. 2011) to calculate principal components to be used in adjustment for confounding of traits by population structure.
So far, the challenge in animal science has been that resistance and tolerance are difficult to uncouple, and the traits may be confounded in trait recording.
However, genetic background variations may confound disease traits, especially for disorders with incomplete penetrance, such as long-QT syndromes (LQTS).
For some diseases, a fraction of the individuals may appear as "cured" (non-susceptible), and the resulting survival time may thus be a result of two confounded underlying traits, i.e., endurance (individual hazard) and susceptibility (whether at risk or not), which may be accounted for by fitting a cure survival model.
This portion of its history may have shaped several important physiological traits and the genes underlying those traits, confounding extrapolations to the biology of strictly marine diatoms.
For instance, peak parasitaemia (a proxy for virulence) was higher in specialist than in generalist malaria parasites of primates, when confounding life-history traits were controlled [ 42].
This approach would enable the detection of genetic risks for secondary traits while accounting for any stratification, confounding, or association between traits and other variables using standard statistical methods.
In conclusion, the high prevalence of complex traits affecting the aging eye and the inherent biases in referral patterns leads to the potential for confounding by undocumented secondary traits within case-control studies.
