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Results of the factor analysis supported the unique underlying concept assessed by the nine items.
This tool includes five different dimensions with predictable relationships with the concept assessed by VES-13.
These domains are determining factors of the sixth concept, assessed by the Satisfaction with self-injection domain.
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While the specific assessment questions were revised between semesters, the underlying concepts assessed by the pre- and posttest did not change substantially.
Neither had previous exposure to the original instruments but they were familiar with health care concepts assessed by the tools.
Two of the core concepts assessed by BEDCI Accuracy and Purpose of Experiments—have only one question to capture student thinking.
The concepts assessed by the Healthy Days Measures are believed to be universal, however, and are therefore capable of being adapted for use in other cultures and languages [ 55].
Overall, the matrix confirms that each of the concepts assessed by the HPI-CI questions is addressed in the learning goals of at least one of our HPI courses.
We expected that they would answer a higher proportion of questions in an expert-like way than students from the first-year classes, given they would have had more instruction on experimental design and would have already been taught either explicitly or implicitly the eight core concepts assessed by the BEDCI (Table 1).
Given the difference between the concepts assessed by the WPS questions and the other measures considered, the correlation coefficients are expected a priori to be low to moderate (low = 0 to 0.3, moderate ≥0.3 to <0.5), thus indicating a divergent validity of the measures compared.
Given the difference between the concepts assessed by the WPS questions and the other measures considered, the a priori hypothesis tested was that the correlation coefficients are expected to be low to moderate (low, 0 to 0.3; moderate, ≥0.3 to <0.5), thus indicating a divergent validity of the measures compared [ 37].
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com