Other complementary determinations were some specific chemical analysis and physic and mechanical properties of some cement tested.
Higher polymorphic levels can be found in the sex-determination gene, complementary sex determination, of honey bees that exhibits trans specific balancing selection [ 61].
In isolated haplodiploid populations with complementary sex determination, reductions in the number of sex-determination alleles increase the production of inviable or effectively sterile diploid males, which in turn reduce population growth rates and effective sizes potentially creating a rapid extinction vortex [40], [41].
Two empirically confirmed sex-determination mechanisms have been documented in the Hymenoptera, Complementary Sex Determination (CSD), reported from over 60 hymenopteran species across most major superfamilies [ 47, 49, 50], and maternal effect genomic imprinting sex determination [ 51], thus far only described for the parasitoid wasp Nasonia [ 52].
In the analysis above, we assume that L. leucozonium has single-locus complementary sex determination (sl-CSD), the ancestral sex determining mechanism in the Hymenoptera [27], [28].
Single-locus complementary sex determination (sl-CSD) occurs when a single genetic locus determines the sex of the individual that it is found in.
Our previous study has ruled out complementary sex determination for A. japonica [ 28], but it is currently not known what its sex determination mechanism is (see Discussion for further details).
Moreover, the genotyping of males with the markers revealed the occurrence of diploid males, which was further confirmed by flow cytometry, suggesting complementary sex determination (CSD) in this species.
Nevertheless, under single locus complementary sex determination (sl-CSD), diploid males can occur.
