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Educational and training opportunities are limited; health care services, if available, are basic; and most families live at close to subsistence levels.
For the first sixty years of the nineteenth century — the period during which he began writing "Capital" — workers' wages in Britain and France were stuck at close to subsistence levels.
For the first sixty years of the nineteenth century the period during which he began writing "Capital"—workers' wages in Britain and France were stuck at close to subsistence levels.
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At a very basic, agrarian level of development, Milanovic explains, people's incomes are relatively equal; everyone is living at or close to subsistence level.
"The same loss affects poor and marginalised people far more because their livelihoods depend on fewer assets, their consumption is closer to subsistence levels, they cannot rely on savings to smooth the impacts, their health and education are at greater risk, and they may need more time to recover and reconstruct.
The average Roman senator was worth "only" about 5m, while the majority of the population lived on something closer to subsistence level; a single sestertius could buy two loaves of bread.
But if we look at the bottom billion in terms of those who are closest to subsistence-level incomes, 70% of that bottom billion are working in agriculture.
Jordan's stories of these exiles bring to life what it was like to live at the height of the Middle Ages, an era that was prosperous by medieval standards but was close enough to subsistence level that theft was a threat to survival and punishable by death.
This increased the productive labour force, since many people moved from something close to subsistence agriculture into making things that others wanted to buy.
As for the rest, she writes, "the deeply rooted village populations of Indonesia have always lived fairly close to subsistence and millions remain contented with that life".
However, for households close to subsistence, migration is an unacceptable risk; a migrant may be unable to find a job after spending scarce resources to migrate.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com