In these chapters, we read of many of these mechanisms - and how they have been affected, usually adversely, by outside pressures (government changes, marketization and privatisation, and 'Islamic renewal' in the African cases) that have led to greater individualization of property rights, and have not always been replaced by outside aid to alleviate stock disasters.
In the 1990s, China experienced massive changes due to marketization.
In narrower terms, marketization refers to changes within the public sector where market mechanisms and incentives are introduced within public or publicly regulated organizations.
Overall, these previous studies imply that the underlying social mechanisms that determine income distribution are quite complicated, and it is insufficient to simply apply the state vs. market perspective to explain changes in income distribution in China following marketization reform.
Prominent examples of marketization include contracting out, internal markets, management contracts, and market testing.
However, its fast paced marketization process created ample market opportunities during the transitional process, particularly for less educated or skilled labour in the manufacturing sector.
Right after the second 'Golden Era', is the second 'Dark Age' of ECE (1994 2009) when the privatization and marketization period and the market economy took hold in China.
Beginning with marketization reform, China's labor market has formed gradually, which in turn has led to dramatic changes to income distribution and the overall economic structure in China (Bian and Zhang 2002; Liu 2006).
Equally, some forms of marketization can occur without a change in ownership.
Secondly, the post-Communist marketization of Polish society ushered in profound changes in land-use and rural development policies which has created competition for land and access to pasture, as well as driving up the opportunity cost of labour.
More recently, the complementary Eastern European welfare state type has been considered, in the social policy literature, to account for specific features of countries that have experienced dramatic changes from a communist welfare state to systems characterized by marketization and decentralization 21.
