The case study also includes the competition between centralised technologies (e.g. large scale combined heat and power and heat pumps with district heating grids) and decentralised technologies (e.g. small scale combined heat and power, single building gas boilers, solar collectors, etc. in buildings).
An effective coupling of centralised smart technology and citizen participation, this builds on the US idea of a 3-1-1 phoneline to report non-emergency issues, adding a website and smartphone app with the ability to send photos.
The basic argument is that conventional energy systems have become so large, centralised and technology dependent, that we as humans/individuals have lost control, and that energy is no longer just instrumental for human activities, but dictating them.
The development of the internet was a gradual process rather than a single event, a discontinuity in relation to the centralised mass media technologies such as the television.
This style is often associated with 'governing´ (top down, centralised, of science and technology on the basis of invited advice from scientific expertise), as opposed to ´governance´ (bottom-up, decentralised) (Callon et al. 2009)).
Confusion regarding assessment and therapeutic pathways and referrals, absence of a centralised management system, information technology perceived as 'not user-friendly' and incapable of managing multiple diagnoses were also reported.
However, as Cloud computing and many similar technologies (albeit centralised systems) resemble the working mechanism of Fog computing, they can provide a deeper insight into the security threats and solutions.
Considering the urban form for Harare, a semi-centralised scheme can be a feasible option to introduce decentralisation, considering that the planning policies and the regulatory framework do not have many components that facilitate a different kind of management other than the traditional "end-of-the pipe" solutions and with use of conventional technologies in centralised systems.
Most of the technologies used for centralised treatment of wastewater are expensive (investment and maintenance) and require well-trained staff (Nhapi 2004a, b, c).
