In any case, efforts to restrict smuggling have often backfired an increase in checkpoints only causing a disadvantage to small-time operators, enabling cartels to take control instead.
It could be argued that if we accompanied snacks with insulin boluses, we could cause additional hypoglycemia after early evening exercise, causing a disadvantage to the conventional treatment.
Because group level performance (i.e. success in the PGG) determines both individual and group level success any deviation from the optimal group composition would cause a disadvantage in some way or other.
On the other hand, if the number of cooperators is higher than what is required for providing benefit for the whole group (in our example capturing the prey), the energy loss of unnecessary effort would cause a disadvantage when the group faces a conflict (fight for territory).
Aneuploidy causes a proliferative disadvantage in all normal cells studied so far; yet this condition is associated with unabated proliferative potential [ 63].
This shift towards earlier hatching and emergence of eggs and fry of the GH-enhanced salmon may cause a fitness disadvantage in the life-histories of these fish at temperatures that are experienced by conspecifics under natural conditions.
Results showed that TF knock-down caused a growth disadvantage, with particularly striking results for Fli1 and Gata2 (Supplementary Fig S9).
This phenomenon in cell growth and tumorigenesis has recently been explained by the so-called aneuploidy paradox which means that chromosome gains cause a proliferative disadvantage and not advantage as one may have assumed [ 76].
For example, all other things being equal, the probability of a mitochondrial gene rearrangement causing a selective disadvantage may be greater for a larger gene than it is for a smaller gene, simply because the chances are greater that the rearrangement will encompass the entire gene.
Nevertheless, this limited enzyme set obviously does not cause an evolutionary disadvantage in competition with other cellulose and hemicellulose-degrading fungi.
