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This captures the error caused by deviations of the tree's branch lengths away from their expected values and includes the unpredictability of rate changes, which might mimic Brownian motion, for example.
Due to the particular mode that characterizes the genetic segregation in the macronucleous of Tetrahymena that defies the rules of diploid Mendelian inheritance, we developed a simple simulation model to estimate both U - the rate at which copy number variation in the MAC occurs- and s - the mean effect on fitness caused by deviations of the optimum copy number.
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As summarized by Xekalaki ([2006]), in traditional experimental contexts, they may be caused by deviations from the hypothesized structure of the population, due to lack of independence between individual item responses, contagion, clustering, and heterogeneity.
The main distortions are stretching of the image and swelling of the center of the image caused by deviations between the actual fiber motion and the predicted trajectory defined by the driving signals [ 14].
Conductivity of semiconducting oxides caused by deviations from stoichiometry and also defects such as interstitial cation or anion vacancies.
The third source of uncertainty, variations caused by deviations from the model assumptions, is difficult to formalize.
Most of the additional procedures were caused by deviations in the sagittal plane.
As to the Q factor, its degradation with D and d deviations, caused by deviated effective incident angle of light on the DBRs [10], is as much as that with thickness deviations.
However, during normal operation, in general, one cannot decide whether a deviation in the retention time is caused by a deviation of pressure, temperature or flow rate or even by combinations of them.
There, the effects caused by the deviation of a density generating function from that of the p-power exponential law are studied in various situations.
The major optimization errors are caused by the deviation of crude protein results from the nutritional requirement constraints.
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