Keratins are tissue-specific cytoskeletal proteins and their mutations cause organ-specific human diseases (Coulombe et al., 2009; Omary et al., 2004; Omary et al., 2009).
Additionally, all four human-specific mutations caused changes in physicochemical properties of amino acids (see Additional file 3: Table S1).
Interestingly, among these 8 serovar restricted and limited SPIs, five (SPI-7, 8, 10, 15, and 17) were associated with human-specific typhoid causing serovars, i.e., S. Paratyphi A and/or S. Typhi, while two (20, and 21) were associated with S. enterica subsp. arizonae.
Human disease should be conceived as resulting from integrated extrinsic and intrinsic causes, with research focused on modern human-specific models to understand disease pathways at multiple biological levels that are analogous to adverse outcome pathways in toxicology.
Typhi), a human-specific pathogen that causes Typhoid fever, a life-threatening and systemic infection of higher incidence in developing countries [13].
GAS is a human-specific pathogen that causes diseases ranging in severity from uncomplicated pharyngitis to life-threatening necrotizing fasciitis.
B. bacilliformis is a deadly human-specific pathogen that causes Carrión's disease in endemic areas of the Andes.
Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi) is a human-specific pathogen that causes typhoid fever, and remains a global health problem especially in developing countries.
Neisseria meningitidis is a human-specific pathogen with the capacity to cause meningitis, which is an important cause of mortality and morbidity.
For example, the human-specific pathogen Bartonella quintana causes trench fever, a rather mild cycling fever with a periodicity of 5 days.
