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But London shows that correlation doesn't equal causation: a number of commuters told me that they hail a cab or Uber maybe once a month, if that.
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This poses a threat to internal validity and the inference of causation, however, a number of measures to overcome this problem have been included in the design.
The majority of cancers have a complex causation with a number of environmental factors acting on an individual's genetic background to influence risk.
Notwithstanding the fact that no observational study can prove causation, there are a number of issues that if addressed sufficiently, can improve the validity and usefulness of our studies.
This principle appears frequently in the mental causation literature under a number of labels: most common are variations of Completeness of the Physical (Crane 1995, 2001; Papineau 1993, 2000; O'Connor and Churchill 2010) or Physical Closure (Crane 1992; Baker 1993; Melnyk 2003; Kim 2005).
Perhaps consistent with both single- and two-event hypotheses of causation, a limited number of studies and reviews have suggested that maternal infection during pregnancy might increase a child's risk for developing leukemia (Lehtinen et al. 2003; McKinney 1999 et al; McNally and Eden 2004; Naumburg et al. 2002; Smith 1997; Smith et al. 1999).
This construal of the task of delivering an account of causation has drawn criticism from a number of commentators.
Due to the retrospective observational nature of the study, causation cannot be assumed; however, a number of factors may contribute to the increased risk of harm to patients discharged from the ICU at night.
The discussion of causation in epidemiology is based on a number of criteria/models, for example, the nine criteria of causation 21, sufficient/component model 22 and the counterfactual model 23.
Risk management has a number of accident causation models that have been used for a number of years.
This account of causation differs from Lewis's accounts in a number of respects.
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