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David Spieghalter, the Winton professor of the public understanding of risk at the University of Cambridge, said: "Pisa explores many factors associated with country performance but occasionally seem hasty in assigning reasons for change – we can't decide causality from this study, and we should be very cautious in the lessons to be learned".
Approaching causality from this direction, though, is notoriously difficult.
Note that there are cases, for example, visualizing transitions between perception and performance, one should not interpret causality from this visualization.
Establishing causality from this research is difficult given the cross-sectional (rather than longitudinal) nature of the surveys and lack of available data for some time periods.
Table 4 provides a synthesis of the expectations, HRM practices and HR outcomes across all the country contexts but does not attempt to demonstrate causality from this exploratory study.
The reported episode of apparent myocardial infarction is of interest; it is not possible to demonstrate causality from this single report, but an increased risk of myocardial infarction has been reported in users of khat.
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It also said it was investigating the deaths of the four children, saying the "target of this strike was Hamas terrorist operatives" and the "reported civilian causalities from this strike are a tragic outcome".
Among the study limitations, it should be mentioned that because this is across-sectional design we cannot infer causality from the results.
This, of course, did not stop some newspapers from inferring causality from the report: the Independent said that higher British child poverty was "due to Government's austerity measures"; the Times says it was "a result of benefits cuts".
In addition, this was a cross-sectional study, which means we cannot infer causality from the current findings.
The validity of drawing a clear line of causality from the Pastors' actions to the ongoing violence in Afghanistan is of course debatable.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com