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First, the cross-sectional nature of the study makes causality difficult to establish.
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The direction of causality is difficult to assess from cross-sectional data.
Fourth, as this study employed a cross-sectional design, causality was difficult to establish.
Due to the study designs and the heterogeneity of the research, causality is difficult to demonstrate and the knowledge the studies bring to the subject is variable.
Neighbourhood food environments are posited as an important determinant of eating behaviours; however causality is difficult to establish based on existing studies.
For a common event such as infection, causality is difficult to establish.
Fifth, causality is difficult to establish in observational studies, and it is possible that more QOF-oriented practices have particular clinical system preferences.
Furthermore, patients presenting with bone metastasis had a higher prevalence of RI, but also here the exact causality is difficult to make.
There are more aspects to quality of care than what is recorded under the QOF; this is an observational study and causality is difficult to establish and it is possible that QOF-oriented practices have particular clinical system preferences.
4– 6 Cross-sectional studies have consistently linked peer victimization to psychological problems, including symptoms of anxiety (see 7); however the direction of causality is difficult to establish, as anxious children may be at greater risk of being targeted by bullies.
While causality is difficult to demonstrate due to the largely observational nature of data synthesized in reviews, evidence suggests that engaging in volunteering activities may provide beneficial social, physical, and cognitive outcomes for older people [ 23- 32].
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com