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Several filters (e.g., minor allele frequency [MAF], consequence of variant) were applied systematically on all mutations to single out any potentially causal ones.
The concept of such an association relies on the association seen between a common variant and rare causal ones [12].
Landsburg considers a couple of harmless explanations — coincidence, bad statistics — but also some causal ones.
Real properties are eo ipso causal ones.
We will shortly mention some possible mechanisms, keeping in mind that cross-sectional data are not suitable for clarifying whether the associations are causal ones.
However, causality is complex and there may be other conditioning factors for the outbreak of the disease which may be regarded as causal ones.
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Another is that it is change which is discontinuous and yet causal: one can make things to happen with measurement, even though one cannot determine the exact outcome.
However, if the association is a causal one, it seems that high caffeine consumption has a higher impact on headache prevalence than previously reported in Vågå in Norway, indicating a prevalence of caffeine-withdrawal headache of only 0.4%[11]].
If the association between reading and verbal ability found here were causal, one potential mechanism may lie in the facilitatory effects of orthography learning on vocabulary, found in studies by Rosenthal and Ehri (2008) and Ricketts, Bishop, and Nation (2009).
Although his theory of reference borrowing is a purely causal one, there is a descriptive element in his theory of reference-fixing.
However, this role is likely to be a causal one, rather than part of an analysis of what it is for music to be emotionally expressive.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com