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No direct causal dependence between the two quantities exists.
In particular, in Lewis's (1986) influential account, counterfactual dependence between distinct events implies causal dependence between them.
According to Lewis, causal dependence between actual events is sufficient for causation, but not necessary (1973b): it is possible to have causation without causal dependence.
For there is no causal dependence between Suzy's throw and the shattering, since even if Suzy had not thrown her rock, the bottle would have shattered due to Billy's throw.
The reason is, as we have seen, that biological hypotheses are often proposed mechanistic explanations that contain more than just a set of variables and relations of causal dependence between them.
It is tempting to reason that there must be a causal dependence between c and e by engaging in the following piece of counterfactual reasoning: if c had not occurred, then it would have to have been the case that d did not occur, in which case e would not have occurred.
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There are several possible ways of interpreting counterfactuals; and some interpretations give rise to spurious non-causal dependences between events.
Moreover, the obtained causal dependence graph reveals the relationship between the structure of road networks and the correlations among traffic time series.
Whether this would be a case of psychological continuity depends on what sort of causal dependence counts.
However, because causal dependence is not transitive like causation, the causal relation between c and e may not be matched by a causal dependence.
As expressed by Pearl [ 7], the statistical language does not permit us to distinguish between statistical dependence, quantified by conditional probabilities, from causal dependence, "for which we have no expression in standard probability calculus".
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com