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Cooperative breeding, in which an animal assists in caring for offspring that are not its own, is often found in nature.
In experiment 2, we used a quantitative in situ hybridization method to compare the expression of an immediate early gene (Egr-1) across the breeding cycle – from establishing a territory to caring for offspring.
But when animals reach their golden years, it makes more sense to disregard illness and invest more time and effort in caring for offspring.
This might in part explain why caring for offspring mattered more for women.
Having located a carcass, males and females each contribute extensively to parental care, and each can carry out all the diverse tasks associated with caring for offspring if widowed (e.g., Smiseth et al., 2005; Smiseth et al. 2006; Suzuki and Nagano, 2009), or in the case of females, if they alone locate a carcass (Müller et al., 2007).
Many of the examples above fit neatly into evolutionary life history theory and its analysis of the trade-offs between somatic maintenance (i.e., acquiring resources and keeping one's body running in tip-top shape) and reproductive effort (i.e., acquiring mates, and making and caring for offspring) (Stearns 2000).
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Nicrophorus vespilloides is an unusual beetle in that it is highly social, with extensive interactions between parents and offspring, but males in the presence of females do not care for offspring or show the same levels of gene expression as caring parents (Parker et al. 2015).
When males are required to care for offspring, testosterone levels will decrease.
There is also a natural impulse to care for offspring.
Experts have said captive whales would not be allowed to breed in sea pens to eliminate the need to care for offspring.
The female regularly transfers her offspring to other females' nests and likewise grooms and cares for offspring other than her own.
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