Translational head movement rate (field observations) and intervals between consecutive regular head movements (captive observations) were log (x +1) transformed to meet normality assumptions; however, figures show untransformed values for clarity.
To better understand group living in sharks, previous research has relied primarily on techniques such as captive observations, fishery capture records and position estimates based on triangulation of underwater acoustic receivers [7], [9] [10], [17] [18].
The low morbidity and absence of any mortality encountered in this study during captive observations and post-release monitoring, in conjunction with separately published results on clinical and behavioral effects of implants, illustrate the survivability of intraperitoneal implantation surgery for the deployment of long-term telemetry devices on pinnipeds.
Direct observations of captive populations and observations of wild animals at feeding stations, den sites or in open habitats have often been used to study direct interactions (e.g. [18] [21]), but their findings are of limited applicability to wild populations or are location-specific.
In strong contrast with these captive studies, consistent observations of potentially altruistic behaviors in different populations of wild chimpanzees have been reported in such different domains as food sharing, regular use of coalitions, cooperative hunting and border patrolling.
In strong contrast to these studies with captive chimpanzees, consistent observations of potentially altruistic behaviors in wild chimpanzees have been reported from different populations in such different domains as food sharing, regular use of coalitions, and cooperative hunting and border patrolling [16] [20].
That model fits the observation that captive lizards (and presumably newborns) lack sepsis-inducing bacteria [3].
Equally relevant for guiding the choice of enforcing monogamy in captive breeding is the observation that multiply mated females usually adjust the investment they make into offspring, affecting progeny quality and survival.
In the remaining three aviary groups, six birds (four males and two females, representing 12% of our captive population) were observed to solve both tasks during the third day of observation.
Captive gorillas were observed on an average 6 h a day (5 7 h); daily observation time for wild gorillas was determined by their visits to the bai, within a typical-day of 9 h watching from the tower.
