In this model, X is an explanatory variable which cannot be observed directly, and X̃ is the observable substitute variable of X, where e is a measurement error, (phi (cdot)) is an unconditional known function.
Like personality, culture or cognition, spirituality can be classified as a latent construct that cannot be observed directly but is inferred from observations of its component dimensions [ 11].
Latent class analysis assumes that the population consists of distinct subpopulations (latent classes), which cannot be observed directly, but are inferred from the observed variables.
Unrest (shaded grey) cannot be observed directly, and must be inferred from observations (e.g. seismicity and SO2 emission, shaded blue).
Like physical quantities, values of economic variables often cannot be observed directly and must be inferred from observations based on abstract and idealized models.
As the NMR signals of the paramagnetic dopant species cannot be observed directly, two complementary approaches are utilized: (1) direct observation of diamagnetic mimics using 45Sc NMR and (2) study of the paramagnetic interaction of the constituent host lattice nuclei with the rare-earth dopant, using 207Pb NMR lineshape analysis.
These cannot be observed directly and can only be inferred from related observations.
The key element of our approach is that we explicitly treat the subjective distribution as an unknown quantity that cannot be observed directly and thus needs to be inferred from observable behavior.
Gravity cannot be observed directly, such that its characteristics must be inferred from observations of its effects.
For example, what are we to think of states of the universe prior to all observation of physical strata of the cosmos that cannot be observed directly or indirectly but only inferred as part of an overriding scientific theory?
The self-directed behaviors, which were performed in front of the mirror and did not take place in its absence, included extensive observation of the implant and genital areas that cannot be observed directly without a mirror.
