Such sensors can, for example, be used to measure changing refractive indices of the cover medium of a waveguide, as well as molecule adsorption at the sensor surface.
The resolution that can be achieved on a given sample with a given setup can for example be estimated by measuring the number of photons collected on a typical image of such sample.
The quality of the circuits can for example be quantified by measuring the parameter reliability and sensitivity, the uniqueness of the predicted network, the model robustness and the predictability of the model.
The degree to which an individual variable confounds the association between outcome and exposure after balancing can, for example, be assessed by measuring the propensity-adjusted effect of treatment and then repeating the analysis, further adjusting for the variable of interest to the extent possible.
Research productivity, for example, can be measured by models that use citation indices and academic social network analysis [4].
Tolerance development, for example, can be measured as a shift in the effect concentration (usually EC50) that is obtained with a short-term toxicity test based on an ecophysiological endpoint.
It is used to overcome the issue that depression, for example, can be measured by different questionnaires with different scoring systems.
Environmental influences, for example, can be measured as perceptions of the availability of facilities (individual-level), or an actual count of facilities (area-level).
For example quats can be measured with Ion Chromatography [ 26] and ethanolamines can be measured with GC/FID NIOSH 2007 method.
Stellar activity can also be measured using, for example, the Ca II infrared triplet or the Hα line28,29,30,31.
