However, fenretinide has shown to increase intrinsic ROS levels with minimal in vivo side effects, probably by interacting with specific cell membrane or cytoplasmic receptors with minimal impacts on other non-related molecules [31].
In general, it is widely accepted that the surface of NPs plays an important and critical role in serum proteins adhesion [ 6– 8] followed by linking with specific cell membrane receptors (i.e., integrins, etc).
Interferons (IFNs) are a family of secreted cytokines [ 1, 2] that exert their biological activities by binding to specific cell membrane receptors to trigger a well characterised intracellular signalling pathway [ 3, 4] culminating in the transcriptional induction of IFN stimulated genes (ISGs).
Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and their carbonyl derivatives contribute to the pathogenesis of diabetes by their interaction with specific cell membrane receptors triggering to induce the expression of proinflammatory mediators and elicit oxidative stress, which exacerbate diabetic complications [ 3].
The present strategy could be developed as a universal approach for designing and constructing carrier-free theranostic nanovehicles by intentionally selecting specific cancer cell membrane and the inner loading cargoes.
Electrochemotherapy facilitates chemotherapeutic drug delivery into cells by increasing cell membrane permeability under specific electric pulses [ 4].
Thus, this review will focus on a promising new approach in cancer therapy which is based on host defense peptides – effector molecules of innate immunity that specifically target cancer cells and destroy them within minutes, mostly by damaging cell membrane without binding to specific receptors.
Some of them were even engulfed by the cell membrane and drawn into the cell even with no aid of site-specific moieties.
Elucidating signaling pathways activated by a cell membrane receptor in animal models of CNS disorders promises to reveal novel targets for specific and effective therapeutic intervention.
From an energetics point of view, NP engulfment by cell membrane is driven by adhesion but involves significant membrane deformation cost [23], where adhesion energy may stem from both non-specific and specific interactions [24].
