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In the early 2000s, appearance-based methods were introduced in their basic form, i.e., by evaluating the pixel intensity values.
Protein band concentrations were analysed using ImageJ by evaluating the pixel density.
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The pinned field [19 22] reflects the texture information of the cover image by evaluating the average pixel values at block boundaries of the image and is used as the feature of the cover image to enhance the watermark robustness.
The pinned field reflects the texture information by evaluating the average pixel values at block boundaries of the images and can be used as the feature of the cover image to enhance the watermark robustness.
Existing works differ on how the subject of the photo is located, for example by using (1) face detection algorithms [14, 17, 18]; (2) low-level information, such as borders and regions found by the mean shift algorithm [4, 87]; or (3) by evaluating the differences of pixels positioned in those interest areas [39].
This allows us to calculate the background probability density function by evaluating the weighted distance between the pixel value and all samples from inside a volume of size around it (with being the dimensionality of the pixel value, in our case of monochrome infrared images, ): (10).
It measures the similarity between two pixels by evaluating the distance between small patches, centered on these two pixels [24,25].
To improve the accuracy, the non-vein pixels are detected by evaluating the directional filtering magnitude (DFM) and considered the non-orientation code.
In this way, each pixel is adaptively assigned a different parameter by evaluating the local structures.
This approach evaluates the gradients of the surrounding pixels for each discarded pixel, and then, the dominant direction is determined [23], where PCA can be implemented by evaluating the singular value decomposition (SVD) [24] of the data.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
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