Hormones can mediate changes directly by binding to intracellular hormone receptors and modulating gene transcription or indirectly by binding to cell surface receptors and stimulating signaling pathways.
16 Oligoarginines were reported to be internalised into mammalian cells through an endocytotic pathway, mediated by binding to cell surface heparan sulfates linked to proteoglycans, 17 followed by back-transport into the Golgi complex and endoplasmic reticulum.
The RGD-motif is a well-described tripeptide, that by binding to cell surface integrins facilitates virus entry into cells.
Recent studies demonstrated that food allergens were protected from lysosomal degradation, and were transported in large quantities across the epithelium by binding to cell surface IgE/CD23 (FceRII) that prevented the antigenic protein from lysosomal degradation in enterocytes.
The biological functions of chemokines are mediated by binding to cell surface chemokine receptors, which belong to the superfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) [29].
Cell-matrix adhesion molecules mediate direct interactions of the cell with its extracellular environment by binding of cell surface molecules with components of ECM, and are crucial for cell migration, differentiation, organisation and embryogenesis [33] [35].
Type-1 IFNs mediate their effects by binding to cell surface receptors, activating downstream interferon-stimulated genes or ISGs, among which more than 15 genes have pro-apoptotic functions [40].
The biological activity of PGE2 is mediated by binding to cell surface receptors.
