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The skeleton of tetraodontiforms is notable for a reduced number of bones, a number of the separate bony elements of the generalized perciforms having been lost through the processes of reduction, consolidation, fusion, or failure to develop.
These structures are elastomeric or viscoelastic in their mechanical properties and serve to allow and control the movement of the bony elements of the spine.
First, the extreme impedance mismatch at the interface between the fatty attachments of the MFB and the bony elements of the TPC is essential, because it causes the greatest possible force to be exerted upon the bone from incoming sound pressure reflections.
Nevertheless, this is a far smaller operation and gives perhaps less destruction to the bony elements of the vertebral column.
Standard methods of pedicle screw instrumentation require significant exposure of the posterior bony elements of the spine to provide landmarks from which to guide the placement of instrumentation.
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The bony element of the posterior tarsus is widely considered a sesamoid but was not apparent until after hatching in our study of C. calyptratus (see Additional file 3: Figure S3C, D).
Linear changes between fleshy and bony elements of all taxa were analyzed with paired t-tests (NCSS, Kaysville, UT) using a Bonferroni adjustment (p<0.01) and the percent change from fleshy to bony phase of the each element was calculated to demonstrate how much of the functional dimension was lost to skeletonization (Table 1).
The supraoccipital (so) and exoccipital (eo) elements are fused and the supraoccipital is present as two lateral bony elements instead of the normal rod-like shape.
As Futuyma (1998) puts it, using the familiar vertebrate forelimb example (Fig. 1), the design hypothesis "does not require that the same bony elements form the frame of the hands of primates, the digging forelimbs of moles, the wings of bats, birds, and pterosaurs, and the flippers of whales and penguins".
Thus, the dried bony elements are not the same functional elements used by an animal, but rather just the mineralized portion.
The FE model of the osseoligamentous lumbar spine included vertebrae, intervertebral discs, endplates, posterior bony elements, and the following ligaments: anterior longitudinal ligament, posterior longitudinal ligament, interspinous ligament, intertransverse ligament, ligamentum flavum, and facet capsular ligament.
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