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Mitteleuropa was urban, cultural, intellectual, ethnically cross-fertilising (mainly between Germanic people, Slavs and Hungarians), and bilingual (knowledge of German was taken for granted); many Jews belonged to it.
It seems that the difference between explicit and quasi-explicit realizations of modality is blurred in translators' bilingual knowledge.
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Designed to expand bilingual Heritage students' knowledge of Spanish by providing them with ample opportunities to develop and improve each of the basic language skills, with a particular focus on writing vocabulary.
All were bilingual, had good knowledge of English, and were familiar with interRAI and local hospital context.
Questionnaires will be forward-translated by a bilingual health professional with knowledge of both the Dutch and Turkish culture, following guidelines of the WHO for translating instruments [ 30].
Back translation into English: the two other bilingual translators who had no knowledge of the original SPQ translated the Chinese version into English.
A second external, independent, bilingual translator with no prior knowledge of the instrument then translated the Norwegian version into English.
A back translation (ISPOR stage 4) of each translated version was then made by a different bilingual translator into English, without knowledge of the original English version.
Afterwards, the list was back- and forward translated by a native English speaking pulmonology expert and two Dutch bilingual primary care researchers with knowledge of pulmonology.
About one-tenth of the people are completely bilingual, but a majority have some knowledge of both French and Flemish.
Simple knowledge structures such as bilingual term lists have proven to be a remarkably useful basis for bridging that language gap.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com