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Nested in this hard truth is that much of accountability-based education reform depends on high-stakes standardized testing, which is itself a deeply flawed and biased instrument.
The gap continues to widen throughout elementary and secondary school, as rich kids have more enrichment opportunities than poor kids, until students take the SAT, an instrument that legitimizes these opportunity disparities as performance disparities, though it's itself a biased instrument.
In contrast, to a certain extent, VAS is an emotionally more biased instrument of tinnitus assessment.
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The Takhar bias instrument demonstrated bias in all eight articles (Table 3).
The Takhar CME bias instrument demonstrated statistically significant bias in all the review articles.
The Takhar CME bias instrument demonstrated bias in all the review articles (Table 3), with mean scores ranging from 2.6 (weakly biased) to 3.6 (strongly biased).
Mean scores from the Takhar bias instrument (Table 3) correlated with mean scores from the RIO bias tally (Table 3), but fell short of statistical significance (r = 0.50, p = 0.11).
In addition, we used the Cochrane seven domain "risk of bias" instrument.
The specific risk of bias instrument is provided in Supplemental Material, "Instructions for Making Risk of Bias Determinations".
We used the Cochrane six-item risk of bias instrument to assess bias from two different levels of detail of trial reports.
The Cochrane Collaboration risk of bias instrument was used to assess bias across five categories: (1) sequence generation, (2) allocation concealment, (3) blinding to group assignment, (4) incomplete outcome data and (5) incomplete outcome reporting [ 60].
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com