We will not, however, correct kappa for prevalence effects and bias, for instance by calculating prevalence-adjusted bias-adjusted kappa, because this would generate values of reliability that no longer relate to the original situation [ 117, 118].
We have harmonised any grading used with published schemes so as to maximise the applicability of our findings, and have taken precautions to eliminate sources of bias, for instance by using temperature controlled facilities to minimise power Doppler variability.
Although the out of bag error estimator is very conservative, a way in which the generalisation error could be challenged is by considering the study population and the diagnostic process as regionally biased: for instance, by assuming that the population of Genoa and neighbouring areas (Liguria) is different from Italy (or worldwide) and that doctors make diagnoses differently.
Different patterns of selection bias could be tested, for instance, by considering various prior modes for p min and p max, the probabilities of publication when the standard error takes its minimum and maximum values across the network [ 15].
In many applications, specific biases have been investigated, for instance, by comparing an instrument with small measurement error with another known to have much larger error.
You may realize that your feeds are biased, but the impact of personalization algorithms — used, for instance, by Facebook — can be subtle and multiplicative.
Description bias results from the interpretations journalists already make while reporting, for instance by using certain categories and abstaining from others.
The agency will work to ensure fairness in peer review, for instance by exploring whether reviewers have unconscious racial biases and by pilot testing reviews of anonymized applications.
The RN will try to challenge this belief for instance by conduction an objective risk assessment, or by exploring biases in the belief itself.
I suggest to clarify this, for instance by adding a restrictive adjective, something like "…identifies the CvP-bias as a (reliable, robust) measure of eukaryotic thermostability".
Tree topology can also be affected by various biases; for instance, simulation studies show that poor data tend to generate imbalanced trees (see Mooers and Heard 1997 for review).
