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With experience, as the association between the predictive cue stimulus (CS) and the reward (unconditioned stimulus, US) develops, the dopamine signal vanishes from the time of delivery of the US and appears at the time of delivery of the CS [34].
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In the case of the chocolate brand logos that we used, the association between the predictive cues (i.e., the logos) and reinforcers (e.g., delicious chocolate) has likely been established by previous learning experiences of our participants.
In other words, the predictive cue contained no information about the likely orientation of the non-cued grating.
Future studies can lengthen the time between the reward-predictive cue and the reward delivery to determine which aspect of reinforcement is associated with DLS dopamine release.
Critically, no developmental-comparison fMRI studies to date have featured variable timing between the reward-predictive cue at the start of the instrumental trial and the subsequent reward notification event of that trial, so as to isolate time series signal change [29], [30] elicited by these different components of the instrumental trial.
Additionally, studies with non-human primates demonstrated increased firing rates in dopaminergic midbrain neurons during the anticipation of rewards after associations between predictive cues and reinforcers have been learned [ 39].
Moreover, arousal rating can be considered a predictive cue of the ability to classify and differentiate emotional correlates.
2) Because the predictive auditory cue temporally precedes the visual outcome, learning should modify neuronal activity in early visual cortex in response to auditory cues.
Several theories have emphasized the role of predictive cues in the development of incentive motivation.
To elucidate the link between the predictive value of the aversive high pain signal, and subsequent neural responses to nonconscious nocebo cues, a correlation analysis between high pain reports during conditioning and amygdala activity during nonconscious nocebo trials was performed.
This finding echoes a previous observation of a relationship between metacognitive efficiency and the ability to learn from predictive cues over time44.
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