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Yet, it has proven difficult to distinguish between causes and consequences, thus making it challenging to attack medical questions where we require precise causative drug targets and disease mechanisms beyond a web of associated markers.
The reference to the 'functionality' of a system is a specific way of thinking, though, that received a lot of critique since its genesis in the late 19th century—on the one hand because the distinction between causes and consequences of phenomena becomes blurry, and on the other hand because identifying the functions of these phenomena does not necessarily explain them [cf. 17], pp. 90].
One option is to foster a systemic mindset, in which adopters duly consider the direct and indirect relations between causes and consequences.
How to differentiate between causes and consequences?
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The present study, however, could not differentiate between cause and consequence.
Nevertheless, lactate is often intuitively considered as 'the devil in metabolism' by many physicians or scientists, this probably resulting from confusion between cause and consequence.
Because provirus tagging allows the precise molecular discrimination between cause and consequence, provirus insertion mutation models provide a useful new filter for cancer drug target selection.
Ultimately, a RCT allocating patients to different energy intake levels remains the only definite solution to distinguish between cause and consequence [ 3].
Additionally, since the study is observational, it is not possible to differentiate between cause and consequence, which would require intervention in a model system.
For example, these studies may suffer from selection effects that is, a construct excluded from the analysis actually "causes" both drug use and assumed consequence of drug use, rendering the relationship between cause and consequence spurious.
The reduced levels of DNA-PKcs and Ku80/Ku70 subunits in post-mortem AD brains may be perceived as upstream events of neuron loss in AD, although further studies to differentiate between cause and consequence are warranted.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com