Behavior was coded according to a specifically designed ethogram using continuous recording and focal animal sampling with The Observer® XT 12.5.
Betel quid chewing behavior, was coded as betel quid chewers (chewed at least once a week, irrespective of quantity) or never chewers (those who never chewed).
Behavior was coded every minute by recording 1) total activity (time spent moving; maximum 60 sec) and 2) exploration (number of rearing events).
Frequency of communication behavior was coded during naturalistic interaction between infants with their blind mothers and separately with a sighted unfamiliar adult (i.e., experimenter).
For the vigorous sexual practices scale, scores greater than or equal to 2 (high risk behavior) were coded "1" and score less than 2 (low risk behavior) were coded "0".
For the risky partners and risky venues scale, scores greater than or equal to 3 (high risk behavior) were coded "1" and scores less than 3 (low risk behavior) were coded "0".
Open-living type and nest-living type behavior were coded 1 and 2 in spatial activity, respectively.
Maternal behavior is coded during feeding and holding interactions, using a 9-point Likert scale [ 76] for five domains: (a) Acceptance vs. Rejection, (b) Soothing capability, (c) Consideration vs. Intrusiveness, (d) Quality of Physical Contact, (e) Quality of Vocal Contact, and (f) quality of transitions during feeding.
Participant reporting involvement in respective behaviors was coded 1, and otherwise 0. For criminal justice involvement, a binary measure of self-reports on arrest/booking in 12 months (i.e., taken into custody and processed by the police or by someone connected with the courts) for breaking the law, not counting minor traffic violation, was used.
Based on previous research [ 1, 23, 40], the occurrence of the following four behaviors was coded on a three-point scale (0 = not at all, 1 = a little, 2 = a lot) for each of the tasks: (1) negative response to the situation, (2) gaze aversion/turning away from situation, (3) collapsed body, and (4) corners of the mouth turned down/lower lip pushed outward (pouting).
