By analogy with radiation bursts observed in paleontology, they have been linked to evolution through the theory of punctuated equilibrium developed by Eldredge and Gould [ 105].
Recently, with the accumulation of functional genomic studies, evolution of phenotypes has been linked to evolution of gene expression [ 2– 4] including for brain evolution [ 5, 6].
Interestingly, in our study all but one newborn's R5broad virus were capable of FC-4b usage, which indeed was previously shown to be linked to evolution to CXCR4 use in adults [15].
As mutation rate is linked to evolution, understanding the mutation rates of these proteins can help to decipher their evolutionary history.
Our data also elude to the possibility of distinct mechanisms, among different phage families, of tail fiber and tailspike diversification, which may be linked to evolution of host specificity.
Moreover, accelerated shortening of telomeres in stem cell compartments of the intestinal epithelium and the hematopoietic system occurs in the context of chronic diseases and is linked to evolution of chromosomal instability, tissue dysfunction, and an increased cancer risk in humans (Risques et al., 2008; Townsley et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2012).
However, changes in the protein coding sequences have been linked to the evolution and development of novel characters (Lynch et al. 2008; Crow et al. 2009), and the timing and location of gene expression can cause major phenotypic differences (Gellon and McGinnis 1998).
This complexity has been linked to the evolution of closed and highly pressurized circulatory systems and appearance of novel organs such as lungs, and subsequent need to respond to trauma in a vessel wall more rapidly.
Furthermore, CRISPRs have been linked to host-phage co-evolution, community structuring and biogeographic patterns in microbial mats [ 21], acidophilic biofilms [ 22], and hot spring microbiota [ 23].
Thus, hyposmia, rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder (RBD), depression, autonomic dysfunction and constipation have all been linked to the clinical and pathological evolution of Parkinson disease.
Further, resistance evolution has been linked to increased microbial production of toxins (Stevens et al. 2007).
