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Herein, we refer to "boundary elements" as sequences that have been functionally validated to limit heterochromatin spread and "boundary-associated sequences" as sequences present at boundaries that may or may not have been shown functionally to have a role in limiting heterochromatin spread.
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However, only a meager 62 TFs have been functionally validated, not just annotated according to their DNA-binding coordinates [ 13, 38].
Only a few genes involved in the DNA repair process have been characterised and their functions have been functionally validated in monocot crops, including rice [ 14].
While some GWAS hits have been functionally validated and replicated across distinct populations, functional validation on a wide scale remains a major challenge.
The albino trait is known to be due to tyrosinase deficiency (Russell and Russell 1948), and mutations in Tyr have been functionally validated as causing albino coat color (Tanaka et al. 1990).
The YER067W promoter contains several binding sites for the stress response transcription factors Msn2/4 and Hsf1, and these sites have been functionally validated [5], [26].
As relatively few miRNA target sites have been functionally validated, such predictors cannot yet be precise, and discovery must continually be re-run on the entire database as new miRNAs are discovered and new binding sites validated.
Only a limited number of MADS genes have been functionally validated in rice.
However, no effectors have been functionally validated so far in the literature for this pathogen.
However, among noted deregulated miRNAs, few have been functionally validated and a limited number of potential targets have been confirmed.
oomycete genomes encode hundreds of such potential effectors [ 13], a growing number of which have been functionally validated.
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