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Increased expression of OPN has also been found in inflamed joints of rheumatoid arthritis patients [ 28].
In vivo, a gradual increase in TF mRNA expression over 7 days has been demonstrated in mice with antigen-induced arthritis [ 19] and increased TF activities along with increased fibrinogen concentrations have been found in inflamed synovial fluid from human arthritis [ 23].
Tregs have also been found in inflamed synovial fluid samples of patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis and various forms of spondylarthropathy [ 44], suggesting that some T cells, such as Tregs, might be attracted to sites of inflammation, where these Tregs should have a protective, rather than a destructive, role [ 44].
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Opposite to our results, PAR-1 has been found in increased levels in inflamed human muscle cells [ 57] and infected murine smooth muscle cell [ 58], and thrombin and LPS have been shown to induce PAR-1 mRNA expression in endothelial cells [ 59] and in rat astrocytes [ 60].
As an example, an enrichment of IFN γ+IL-17+ coproducing CD4+ T cells with a proinflammatory phenotype, previously ascribed to CD pathogenesis, can also be found in actively inflamed mucosal lesions from UC patients [ 33].
In contrast to hBD2, no difference was found in hBD3 levels comparing inflamed colonic mucosa of both patient groups.
Positive cells were found in 40 of 65 (61.5%) inflamed RA synovia but only in 2 of 30 with spondylarthropathy and 0 of 37 other controls (3.0%) (P < 0.001).
Inflamed lesions were found in all animals and a representative animal is shown in Figure 1.
In some studies, a correlation of polyamine levels of patients with IBD with their corresponding inflammatory index revealed that increased concentrations of PAs were found in CECs from the most severe inflamed mucosal areas [ 33].
This was higher than the 5% reported in the DOPPS survey that included US and European patients, but, clear alternative reasons could be found in 2 (sickle cell disease and highly inflamed at time of blood sampling) whilst tunnelled dialysis catheters were present in 4 other patients.
As mentioned above, CD is an ideal model of disease where both types of tissue, i.e. inflamed and normal, can be found in the same subject.
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