It may be calculated, for example, that the image of a grating produces lines 0.5 micron wide on the retina, but this is on the basis of ideal geometrical optics; in fact, the optics of the eye are not perfect, while diffraction of light by its passage through the pupil further spoils the image.
With this model the deformation of drops of all sizes in different elongation fields can be calculated, for example sub-micron-sized drops in a high-pressure homogeniser.
Therefore, the effectively formed methane content is not solely dependent on the substrate composition, as it can be calculated for example by the Buswell equation [28].
Based on the total size of a GP and the transmission rate to OBU, the total time needed to transmit a GP to OBU can be calculated, for example, for GP it is or, for high-and low-priority GPs, respectively.
This means that the difference between the models relies on how the distance between the groups of different populations is calculated (for example, between Paleoamerican and Amerindian groups).
Finally, the actual number of times a particular character history occurred throughout the 201,000 realizations was calculated (for example, how many times was "one gain and one loss" simulated).
A square root of the matrix can be calculated, for example, by its Cholesky decomposition.
The advent of NGS has also added considerations to the way in which power is calculated, for example depth of coverage has to be taken into account.
The relative number of cells in each generation can be calculated for example using branching theory [ 10] however this requires a knowledge of the cell intermitotic time.
As the cellular-scale structure is always unknown, only a coarse-grained electric field can be calculated, for example using a spherical model fitted to the local curvature of the intracranial cavity.
