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Second, we assessed associations with ARB use in the initial 12 months of exposure to provide further information on whether any observed associations were likely to represent a causal relationship; associations in the first 12 months would argue against this, because a causal effect would be unlikely to operate on such a short time scale.
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33 For deprivation, local characteristics may be particularly important because they either exert a causal effect (eg, via psychosocial pathways and stress), or because they are proxies for the individual SES, which is what matters causally.
The results for Slovakia should not be interpreted as a causal effect because of the significant post-match imbalance.
Although simple OLS estimates might not yield a causal effect because the scholastic achievements of students and the use of computer technology might correlate with unobservable factors (i.e., good teachers use technologies, which might not be causally related to the outcomes).
50 57 58 In our study, the adolescents reported that pain interfered with school, general activity and mood; however, we cannot conclude from this study that pain has a causal effect, because it could be the other way around.
First, because this was a cross-sectional study, a causal effect of perceived environmental barriers on disability cannot be claimed.
Although it does not require more than one child to define the causal effect in theory, inferences about a causal effect require multiple individuals because it is impossible to observe both potential outcomes for the same person.
Seeing a cat is not a causal effect, to put the point too crudely, not because it is an eccentric sort of state or process exempt from causal explanations but because it is not a state or process at all.
"But we couldn't find evidence for a causal effect in the population at large".
Because our research design is based on a natural experiment, it is more likely to show a causal effect of board independence on risk-taking.
Nonetheless it may have a causal effect on the course of the exchanges.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com