Biofilms are resistant to host immune defenses, detergents and antibiotics, and antibiotic resistance of microrganisms in these habitats can be increased up to a thousand-fold [ 6].
Bacterial biofilms are resistant to host defense factors and antibiotics because of their protective extracellular matrix and dormant persister cells [1], [2].
Supplementary to this concept, we and others have shown that entry inhibitors potently inhibit highly infectious escape variants of HCV that are resistant to host neutralising antibodies.
Helminth parasites are generally well-adapted to their definitive hosts, yet closely related host species, and certain genotypes of their normal host organism, can be resistant to infection.
The microbial communities found in the mammalian large intestine and rumen efficiently degrade many recalcitrant substrates that are resistant to the host's digestive enzymes.
Microbial biofilms cause 65 80% of human infections, where these heterogenous colonies, encased in an extracellular matrix, are resistant to desiccation, host immune responses, ingestion and antimicrobial agents (Hall-Stoodley, Costerton and Stoodley 2004).
T1Rapa cells are resistant to rapamycin, while host T cells undergo apoptosis after rapamycin therapy initiation.
Their ability to attach onto biomaterial surfaces of implanted medical devices or to fragments of dead tissue and form biofilms results in chronic and refractory infections (Otto 2012b) that are resistant to antibiotics and to host defense clearance mechanisms (Spoering and Lewis 2001).
These malignancies are able to escape immune clearance, and are resistant to cytotoxic activities of host immunonocytes (Halapi, 1998; Beatty and Paterson, 2000; Song et al, 2001a).
Several of these infections are characterised by biofilms, adherent communities of bacteria attached to the prosthetic hip joint components that are resistant to antibiotic challenge and host immunity [ 5].
