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However, this cannot necessarily be interpreted as causation.
The associations cannot be interpreted as causation, and the results are more relevant to background exposure in the general population.
There is an ongoing debate regarding how and when an agent's or determinant's impact can be interpreted as causation with respect to some target disease.
Due to these and the observational nature of the study design, the association found in our study cannot be interpreted as causation for ADHD.
Statistical correlations between specific metabolites and experimental groups cannot be interpreted as causation, since these changes can be indirect effects of upstream regulation.
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Though the effects in these cases are stronger than the genotype effects, differential methylation usually does not predict differential expression, and in no case should the strong association of methylation with gene expression be interpreted as simple causation.
One proposal is to say that if we came across reversed cases of de facto irreversible processes, such as running a film backwards in which the cream converged in a coffee cup, such cases should be interpreted as examples of backward causation (Price 1996).
Hence, findings from this analysis can be interpreted as associations instead of causations.
The association between physical activity and mortality could be interpreted as a result of reverse causation, because older adults who report lower levels of physical activity could be in this group because they also presented poorer general health status and therefore higher mortality risk.
Indeed, in all the current quantum theories that violate factorizability there are correlations between distant specific measurement outcomes — correlations that may well be interpreted as an indication of counterfactual superluminal causation between these outcomes.
Therefore, the finding between history of wrist fracture and overall risk of prehypertension and hypertension can only be interpreted as an association, but not a causation.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com